Most theorists agree that it’s vital to support learners in reflecting on their learning to embed any new knowledge, skill or behaviour. This means space for reflection must be a part of any form of intervention.
The theories introduced below are intended as a starting point to explore this complex but vital field of study for L&D practitioners.
Behaviourism
Key theorists: include Guthrie, Hull, Pavlov, Skinner, Thorndike, Tolman and Watson.
Overview: Through stimuli in the learners external environment, a change in behaviour can be brought about through training and education.
There are two types:
- Operant conditioning: Skinner suggests applying either positive reward and/or reinforcement or negative reinforcement and/or punishment and/ after a behaviour has taken place. The basis is that people will seek to gain more positive reward and so repeat the behaviours that result in this.
Operant conditioning is about changing voluntary behaviour, requiring the learner to participate and to want to change to the behaviours that result in positive reinforcement and reward. Feedback given in review sessions during skills training is a typical example of operant conditioning. It does not always work. Where, for example, managers are very sparse in feedback, praise, reward or just acknowledgement, employees or learners may settle for negative punishment as the only way of getting any acknowledgement of their existence. This means that negative behaviours are reinforced; the opposite of what is required.
- Classical conditioning: this is most well-known through the story about how Pavlov trained dogs to salivate when they heard a bell being rung. He had taught the dogs that there was a relationship between the bell ringing and food appearing (which made the dogs salivate). Later the dogs salivated when they heard the bell even if no food was produced.
Cognitivism
Key theorists: include Ausubel, Bruner, Gagne, Koffka, Kohler, Lewin.
Overview: The theory grew out of Gestalt theory to develop knowledge already gained and to interpret new knowledge through cognitive processes (mental skills) such as recognition, recall, analysis, reflection, application, finding meaning, problem solving, evaluation, memory, and perception. It’s also about developing capacity and the skills to learn better. This theory places importance on experience insights.
Humanism
Key theorists: include Bloom, Maslow, Rogers.
Overview: Learning is a personal act and a self-actualising process, focusing on affective (emotions and feelings) and cognitive (mental) learning needs. Bloom's Taxonomy of Learning Domains, demonstrates how we receive phenomena, respond to phenomena, attach worth or value, organise and prioritise and internalise values.
This allows learners develop skills such as listening with empathy, participation in group work, questions concepts to internalise them, is sensitive to individual differences, and accepts responsibility for one's own actions.
Social learning
Key theorists: include Bandura, Rotter, Engestrom, Eraut, Lave and Wenger, Salomon.
Overview: Learning takes place through interaction with others in a social context. It includes observation of others.
This forms the basis of learning through communities of practice and situated learning such as real-life project groups and action learning. It is used in developing behaviours through role modelling and interaction.
Constructivist
Key theorists: include Candy, Dewey, Piaget, Rogoff, vonGlaserfeld, Vygotsky, Boud.
Overview: the individual learner constructs meaning and knowledge through experiences and reflecting on those experiences. When a learner encounters something new this must be reconciled with previous knowledge and experience. It may result in changing beliefs or rejecting the new information.
A constructivist L&D practitioner allows learners to gain new knowledge and meaning for themselves, rather than telling them the information or concept and expecting ‘rote’ learning. It requires learners to actively participate.